Introduction Gender Roles in American History: The Influence of Demographic Trends, Religion, Laws and Policies, and Technological and Economic Changes Every aspect of life in the United States is—and has long been—influenced by gender. Women and men have experienced life differently, in terms of their rights and responsibilities within families and outside the home. 1 Social scientists use the term “gender roles” to refer to the expectations for behavior (and to a certain extent, personality traits) associated with being female or male. Gender r oles are socially constructed that is, they are not biologically determined. Expectations for the behavior and personality characteristics of men and women var y across time and place. These expectations are buttressed by the structure of each society. Built into laws and policies, as well as r eligious texts, the institutions of ever y society strongly shape the opportunities and limitations associated with gender. As societal institutions change, gender roles change accordingly. Factors that have influenced gender roles throughout American histor y include r eligion, the economic base, technology, legislation and Supreme Court decisions, and demographic tr ends. Unexpected events such as wars and natural disasters can also influence changes in gender roles sometimes these effects are short-lived, but at other times they are more permanent. In this intr oduction, we pr ovide a general foundation for the mor e specific examination of gender roles in periods of U.S. history that follows.2 This founda- tion includes an over view of the influence of demographic patterns such as mar- riage, divorce, and fertility rates on gender roles, particularly in terms of parenting responsibilities and participation in the paid force. We also provide an overview of the changing economic base of the United States, in particular the ways in which it changed the division of household labor and ideologies about women’ s place. 1. It is important to acknowledge that there is considerable variation within each gender in terms of roles, responsibilities, and rights. Women’s experiences vary by race, social class, age, and national origin. Feminist scholars refer to this as intersectionality. In this volume, whenever possible, we take note of the variation in gender roles along these dimensions. 2. When the first Europeans arrived in America, ther e was a thriving population of indigenous people who had occupied the land for thousands of years. The population of Native Americans was dispersed across the continent and organized into many different tribes. The expectations associated with gender among the various tribes dif fered. Typically, women played important cer emonial and leadership roles. Lineage was traced through mothers. Additionally, gender was not as rigidly dichot- omized as it has been among European Americans. Native American tribes often recognized “two- spirit” people who spanned the gender binary.
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