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Introduction | xvii was a temporary worker program that allowed large numbers of primarily Mexi- can laborers to come to the United States to work and then return to Mexico. Un- documented Mexicans also came into the country illegally in an effort to avoid the literacy law and an immigrant head tax. The illegal immigrants were not yet an issue for the United States, due to the effectiveness of the Bracero program and its outreach to Mexicans who wanted to work and earn in the United States (Daniels 1990 Reimers 1992). Other than the War Brides Act in 1945, which provided entry for American mil- itary spouses and children, the major postwar immigration controversy involved the refugees displaced by the war. Humanitarian concerns about the war-ravaged refugees prompted an effort to open the immigration gates, but anxiety about as- similation and political ideology brought opposition. After heated congressional debate, the Displaced Persons Act of 1948 was passed. What was unusual about the legislation is that it focused on refugees rather than immigrants, but nonetheless it eased entry into the United States for some. The United States allowed almost one- half million refugees into the country from 1948 to 1952, raising many issues about immigration policy, particularly the topic of nationality quotas. Due to the refugee situation, some countriesÊ quotas were filled far into the future (Barkan 1996). The United States after World War II became the leader of the free world, repre- senting a counterpoint to the Soviet Union and communism. The Cold War brought these two powers into competition, and immigration, as well as American racial policy, became more serious international issues. The American people during the early 1950s McCarthy years found themselves trying to present the face of equality to the world while still mired in racial segregation, and fear of unassimilable and ideologically suspect newcomers. Congress reflected these fears while pursuing refugee and immigration solutions. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 (McCarran-Walter Act) brought significant policy changes but maintained the controversial quota system. It did, however, remove all race/nationality barriers to immigration and naturalization. Some groups still had very small quotas, particularly those coming from the Asia- Pacific Triangle (mostly East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan), but nobody was excluded. However, a racial bias was clear. For example, a Chinese individual born in and living in a country with a substantial quota would still be considered Chinese and part of ChinaÊs small quota (Daniels 2004 Barkan 1996). Further- more, family reunification as a nonquota immigration category became a stronger aspect of U.S. policy. Antisubversive provisions were also part of this act in rela- tion to the spread of communism. The 1952 act can be regarded as an interim step toward the substantial modifications of the 1965 Immigration Act. As the country moved toward the liberalization found in the 1965 act, it was clear that there were a number of stepping stones. America as a world power meant paying attention to refugee issues, special skills needed in the United States, and