Introduction xi
health care disparity, and lack of social support networks in the areas where many
blacks live.
Still other risks come from the widening gap between the rich and middle class
versus the poor, putting those who are in the greatest economic hardship at great-
est risk for health and social disparities. This gap no longer exists only between
blacks and whites, but also exists between middle- and upper-class blacks and poor
blacks. Political, social, and civil justice systems and institutions in the United
States too often favor those who are wealthier than most others: Although those in
the most economic despair are the ones who most rely on these systems, they are
those who are most discriminated against—and thus the poor are at greatest risk
for drug abuse and are most likely to commit crimes, be sentenced to longer jail
terms, and be ignored by the political process.
The African American community is affected by its culture, including its strong
religious background. Although other races are generally more accepting of homo-
sexuality, mixed-race marriages, and diverging male and female roles, blacks,
especially older blacks, are less so. For this reason, those blacks in these situations
may be shunned or ridiculed—for example, the children of mixed-race couples
may find themselves struggling to find a cultural identity. As the United States
becomes more accepting of homosexuality, even to the point of legalizing same-
sex marriages in some states, homosexuality is still a taboo topic in the black com-
munity, often because of religious belief. Black males are taught to suppress their
emotions, and black females are often discouraged from taking “masculine” school
courses such as science and vocational courses.
ABOUT THIS BOOK
African Americans at Risk: Issues in Education, Health, Community, and Justice is
a two-volume set that explores some of the primary areas in which African Ameri-
cans are at the greatest risk of falling behind and, in some sense, failing. “Risk”
in this sense has a two-pronged definition: First, it refers to conditions in which
African Americans are disadvantaged in comparison with the majority population
(in this case, whites). As a result, blacks are treated differently, react differently to
the same or similar conditions, or have more negative outcomes in the same situa-
tions than do other people of other races. For example, whites commit the majority
of crimes committed each year, yet more than half of inmates in American prisons
are black. Why? Research shows that blacks are sentenced to prison terms more
frequently than whites are and are given longer sentences even for committing
