Table of Contents

Privacy in the Digital Age: 21st-Century Challenges to the Fourth Amendment [2 volumes]

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• • • 13. The Changing Expectations of Privacy in the Digital Age 307328
    • • Introduction 307328
      • The Beginnings of the American Right to Privacy 308329
      • Expectations of Privacy and the Fourth Amendment 310331
      • Changing Technology and the Law 312333
      • • Electronic Communications Privacy Act 313334
      • The Internet and Social Networking 314335
      • • Facebook and the New Social Norm of Sharing 315336
        • Knowingly Exposed, Plain-View Doctrine, and Social Networks 316337
        • The Third-Party Doctrine and Social Networks 318339
      • Smartphones and Location-Based Applications 320341
      • • Stingray Devices and GPS Tracking 321342
        • Location-Based Applications and Voluntary GPS Location Information 323344
      • Digital Evidence 325346
      • Conclusion 326347
      • Glossary 327348
      • Notes 327348
  • Volume 2 Volume 21352
  • • Title Volume 21352
    • 14. Beyond OnStar: The Future and the Trespass-versus-Privacy Debate 331353
    • • The Development of Standards of Fourth Amendment Protections 332354
      • • Olmstead and Wiretapping Technology 333355
        • Katz and Electronic Listening Technology 335357
        • Kyllo and Thermal Imaging Technology 336358
        • Jones and GPS Monitoring Technology 337359
      • Developments in New Technology 340362
      • The Jones Rationale and Alternatives for the Future 342364
      • A Modest Proposal: The Presumption of Personal Privacy Standard 347369
      • Notes 350372
    • 15. Closed Circuit TVs, Videomation, and Privacy 357379
    • • Introduction 357379
      • Constitutional Concerns: First and Fourth Amendments 358380
      • Closed Circuit Television and Facial Recognition Technology (FRT) 361383
      • Case Studies: International 362384
      • • London, England 362384
        • Auckland, New Zealand 363385
      • Case Studies: Domestic 363385
      • • Boston, Massachusetts 364386
        • New York City, New York 364386
        • Washington, D.C. 365387
        • Oakland, California 365387
        • Chicago, Illinois 366388
        • Baltimore, Maryland 367389
      • Specific Uses of CCTV Surveillance 368390
      • • Sports Security 368390
        • Victim Testimony 368390
        • Safety of Public Spaces 369391
      • Necessary Measures for a Constitutional CCTV Program 369391
      • Conclusion 372394
      • Notes 372394
    • 16. Airport Scanners and the Fourth Amendment 377399
    • • Introduction 377399
      • How it Works 378400
      • History of Airport Security 381403
      • Advanced Imaging Technology and the Fourth Amendment 383405
      • Consent 384406
      • Balancing Privacy and Security 385407
      • Special Needs or Administrative Search 387409
      • Conclusion 391413
      • Notes 394416
    • 17. Social Media and the Fourth Amendment Privacy Protections 399421
    • • The Fourth Amendment 401423
      • • An Expectation of Privacy 402424
        • The Plain-View Doctrine 403425
      • The Advent of Social Media 406428
      • • Usage Data 407429
        • Implications of Usage 408430
        • Implications of Usage in Schools 410432
      • Applying the Fourth Amendment to Social-Media Issues 412434
      • • Fourth Amendment Precedent and Technology 412434
        • Expectation of Privacy and Plain View Revisited 416438
        • Increasing Protection through Legislation 418440
      • Conclusion 419441
      • Apply the Concept—Case Study 419441
      • Glossary 420442
      • Notes 421443
    • 18. Hacking, the Limits to the Fourth Amendment, and Challenges to Local Administration in the 21st Century 429451
    • • The Question of the Fourth Amendment 431453
      • Threats to Internet Security in the Literature and Methods 433455
      • Hacking and Vulnerabilities of Government Sites: The Context in a Democracy 435457
      • The Surveillance State and Fourth Amendment 436458
      • Enabling Motivations, Assumptions, and Identities of Hacktivists 442464
      • Organizational Measures in Response to Hacking 447469
      • Administrative Conceptualization of Risks Associated with Hacking 450472
      • Conclusions 454476
      • Notes 456478
    • 19. Data Mining in the 21st Century 463485
    • • Defining Data Mining 463485
      • Private-Sector and Public-Sector Data Mining 464486
      • Governmental Data-Mining Projects 465487
      • Total/Terrorism Information Awareness 469491
      • Telephone and E-mail Metadata 472494
      • Metadata Litigation 472494
      • Suspected Extent of Data Mining 474496
      • NSA Data collection Site in Utah 475497
      • Edward Snowden, PRISM, Telephone Metadata, and XKeyscore 476498
      • Tracing Fourth Amendment Cases Relevant to Data Mining 480502
      • The Third-Party Doctrine and Data Mining 483505
      • Data Mining Difficulties 485507
      • Notes 486508
    • 20. The Role of Security in Wireless Privacy 495517
    • • Notes 516538
    • 21. Identity Theft in the 21st Century 519541
    • • Introduction 519541
      • The Nature of the Problem of Identity Theft 520542
      • Offenders 523545
      • Victims 524546
      • History of Legislative and Governmental Efforts to Prevent Identity Theft 525547
      • Worldwide security 528550
      • Solutions 529551
      • Fourth Amendment 531553
      • Conclusion 536558
      • Notes 536558
    • 22. Maintaining the Technological Neutrality of the Fourth Amendment 543565
    • • The Unlimited Third-Party Doctrine 544566
      • The Limited Third-Party Doctrine 548570
      • The Indifference Test for Assessing Technological Neutrality 549571
      • Ex Ante Clarity of the Third-Party Doctrines 551573
      • The Content/Noncontent Distinction for Third-Party Records 554576
      • The Null Third-Party Doctrine 557579
      • Summarizing the Differences between Third-Party Doctrines 558580
      • Technological Neutrality and Enhancement Technology 559581
      • Baselines for Assessing Technological Neutrality 561583
      • Maintaining Technological Neutrality by Extra-Constitutional Means 562584
      • Technological Neutrality as an Interpretation Mechanism 563585
      • Conclusion 564586
      • Notes 565587
    • 23. Developments in Search-and-Seizure Cases in the Post–September 11 Era 567589
    • • Introduction 567589
      • Fourth Amendment Cases Decided by the Court after 9/11/01 569591
      • • Requirement for Warrants 570592
        • Exceptions to the Warrant Requirement 571593
        • Execution of Warrants 576598
        • Motor Vehicles 577599
        • • Searches of Motor Vehicles 577599
          • Traffic Stop Based on Anonymous Tip 578600
          • High-Speed Chases 578600
        • Investigative Methods 579601
        • • Scientific Evidence and Technology 579601
          • Drug Detection Dogs 579601
        • Special Classifications of Persons 582604
        • • Suspects Entering the CountryThe Court 579601
          • Convicts 579601
          • Material Witnesses 579601
          • Persons Associated with Criminals and Terrorists 579601
          • Government Employees 579601
          • Students 579601
        • Remediation of Fourth Amendment Violations 584606
        • • Exclusionary Rule 584606
          • Section 1983 and Bivens Actions 584606
      • Conclusion 587609
      • Notes 589611
• Appendix: Table of Cases 595617
• • Statutes 601623
• Bibliography 605627
• About the Editors and Contributors 647669
• • Editors 647669
  • Contributors 647669
• Index 653675

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