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xxii Introduction ECONOMICS AND WORK One of the greatest transformations in the nation occurred in the antebellum era, to the point that it helps scholars to define its chronology. In retrospect, scholars can see that around 1815, Americans began acting differently. The preindustrial econ- omy—a subsistence economy with barter and trade but little cash—gave way to the market where the forces of supply and demand are more important than need, resulting in occasions when cash paid for wages and goods. The market economy had an impact on every aspect of life. Mill workers traded hours for cash to buy food and board farmers grew specialized crops to sell in order to buy goods made in factories and the various sections of the United States (North, South, and West) became tied together based on economics while creating conditions for regional leaders to squabble over economically related policies, including tariffs, internal improvements, and the expansion of slavery in the territories. FAMILY AND GENDER American families, like their English and European counterparts, who dominated colonial settlement in North America, continued to be the mainstay of American life. Americans generally preferred to create nuclear families with some extended kin occasionally, and this contrasted with some of the tribes on the continent prior to European settlement. Slaves on big plantations also lived in small units but readily adopted newly arrived slaves as a part of the plantation family. Family made work possible and necessary. They provided support and consternation in the antebellum era like any other period. The economic changes of the period that gave rise to cities and the middle classes did, however, redefine some roles within families. But no matter what fluctuations appeared, family remained fundamental to antebellum life for all people living within the nation’s boundaries. FASHION AND APPEARANCE Fashion has always changed with the times, and the well-dressed Americans of 1815 looked quite different from those in 1860. Yet sometimes people’s appear- ance had more to do with larger social changes. As the cities emerged, Amer- icans wanted to see and be seen. Like art and literature, they found inspiration from abroad and defined the standards of appropriate dress for the various classes. Working-class people in the cities and on farms wore clothing suitable for their labors, while middle- and upper-class Americans wore fashionable clothing that