The Gender Gap throughout History 7 difference. On average, from 1983 to 2014, women identified as Demo- crats by 11.4 percent. While the gap has ebbed and flowed since 1980 (see Figure 1.1), the average gap in party identification from 1983 to 2014 was 11.38 points.14 By 1996, gender predicted party identification better than all other social cleavages except for race.15 CAUSES OF THE GENDER GAP There are many possible explanations as to why the gender gap emerged and has persisted. Feminism and the women’s movement led to greater group consciousness and political activism among women, and these led to distinct issue positions.16 Group position was also a likely cause of party realignment as a subordinate group, women began challenging the domi- nance of men, and men began moving to the Republican party in an effort to preserve their dominance. Karen Kaufmann, associate professor at the University of Maryland’s Department of Government and Politics, has conducted several studies on the nuances of the gender gap. She states, I argue that white men have become increasingly resistant to the liberal cultural agenda of the Democratic Party. Social policies that advocate for greater female equality and expanding legal protections for gays and lesbians—particularly in the workplace, and in the family—pose substan- tial challenges to a traditional social order in which white men have been largely privileged.17 Figure 1.1 Changes in Party Identification by Gender
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