xiv Introduction which women consumed several glasses of alcoholic beverages at parties and then were raped have received media attention. In some cases, the women did not find out what had happened to them until they saw photographs on social media. This was what happened to the young woman who was raped by Brock Allen Turner while she was unconscious. Turner was found guilty of sexual assault in 2016, but he was not sentenced to any prison time. His sentence spurred California to revise rape laws in 2017 so that individuals convicted of sexually assaulting a person who was unconscious or incapable of giving con- sent must now serve prison time. Throughout history, rape has been a part of everyday domestic life—the rape of wives, concubines, children, servants, and slaves by husbands, uncles, brothers, masters, friends, and neighbors. Rape has been a companion of sol- diers and explorers as they conquered new lands, subdued their enemies, and took spoils of war or revenge. Through rape, soldiers then and now have proven their masculinity and strengthened their bonds with comrades. In conflict zones, both women and men are at risk of sexual violence. When the Japanese army captured the Chinese city of Nanking in December 1937, they began to commit mass murder, torture, mutilation, and rape. It is esti- mated that hundreds of thousands were murdered, and 20,000 women were raped, including schoolgirls, nuns, and elderly women. Thousands of other Chinese women were forced into sexual slavery as “comfort women.” The sur- vivors are still seeking reparations from Japan. During the Holocaust, though technically forbidden by race laws to do so, Nazis raped Jewish women, as well as sexually humiliating them by forcing them to stand or dance naked. Sometimes women or girls were raped as part of looting, or as part of a bargain so that the woman could receive food or other necessities. Jewish women were also sexually abused by fellow prisoners and by those who helped them when they were in hiding (Wolfe 2012). The Holocaust sought to wipe out the entire Jewish population. Other con- flicts since then have also tried to eradicate various ethnic or religious groups. In addition to murder, policies of ethnic cleansing also target women’s bodies by raping them so that they are forced to bear their oppressors’ offspring, or by forcing them to have abortions or to undergo sterilization (Wolfe 2012). In more recent times, sexualized violence as part of a policy of ethnic cleans- ing has taken place in Bosnia, the Congo, Rwanda, South Sudan, and Syria. Survivors of this sexualized violence often suffer additionally because they are stigmatized by their families or communities. Furthermore, they or their fam- ilies may not accept babies born of these rapes. Women in refugee camps face additional risks, including sexual violence. Men are also raped, and sometimes they are forced to watch as their family members are raped, or they are forced to commit rape themselves.
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