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Introduction xv of workers, along with a persistent gender gap in pay. Even today, most employed women work in lower-paying “pink collar” (i.e., female-dominated) jobs such as secretarial work, nursing, elementary education, food service, and retail sales. The skilled crafts and scientific and technical work are dominated by men. Conse - quently, in spite of the fact that the United States instituted an Equal Pay Act in 1963, women who work full-time year -round earn roughly 20 percent less than equivalently employed men. Persistent Patriarchy The Europeans who settled in the first colonies held religious beliefs that, in most cases, sharply defined gender roles. Nearly all of the world’s major religions have a patriarchal core. Patriarchy (which means “rule of the father”) has been common throughout much of American history. In patriarchal societies, men have the legiti- mate authority to make all decisions within their households and to r epresent their families in the public sphere. Patriarchal marriage begins with the assumption that husbands are to be the masters of their households. Christian theology pr ovides an often-quoted statement that supports patriarchal marriage: “The husband is the head of the wife, even as Christ is the head of the Church” (Ephesians 6:23). Similar statements can be found in the Koran and are echoed in Islamic law, which requires Muslim women to obey their husbands. Even in patriar chal marriages, however, women typically make some decisions about their childr en and their homes. In any confrontation or dispute, though, husbands have the final authority. In colonial America, men were expected to “control” their wives (who were considered child- like) and were allowed to use physical punishment if necessary. Men were not only the heads of their households they also spoke for women in the public spher e. Women could not vote or hold public of fice in some cases, they weren’t even allowed to speak in public. Once married, they had no right to own property. The legal status of women has changed in most respects over U.S. history. For example, attitudes toward intimate partner violence changed dramatically in the 20th cen- tury with a Supreme Court decision that allowed women to charge their husbands with marital rape, and with the passage of the Violence Against Women Act. Religion continues to be a dominant influence in American society. Religious affiliation and religiosity (i.e., the importance of religion to an individual) are pri- mary correlates of beliefs and behaviors about women’s place. As we will see, the emergence of the Religious Right in the 1980s played a major r ole in politics and supported a return to “traditional” patriarchal values. The correlation of religious and party affiliation continues to characterize American politics. Long-Term Demographic Trends Marriage In colonial America, the stigma attached to singlehood was quite severe. Social and economic sanctions wer e often used to push people into marriage. Older