History and Oppressive Police Practices against Minorities 3 became the symbol of social control and order for local governments, and that is why these smaller cities opted to establish police departments (Greene, 1996 Maguire & Radosh, 1996). But who was in control of the police, why, and to what end was not always such a laudable matter. Policing in its early origins was influenced by the rule of politics and corrupted by the local political leadership. One example is the history and influence of Tammany Hall politics, the New York City “political machine” that always had a certain number of police jobs in exchange for political favors. Even in 1936, August Vollmer, who began in 1905 as a Cal- ifornia town marshal, was later police chief, and is considered the father of American policing, recognized that reform was almost nonexistent except for large police departments that had the capability to provide training. He was outspoken about the lack of professionalism and the corruption in policing. Vollmer (1971) argued that the poor quality of personnel was the weakest link in American policing and described political influence as a burden (pp. 4–6). MODERN AMERICAN POLICE SCANDALS Germann, Day, and Galatti (1976) describe 300 years of policing prior to 1978 as “operations that have ranged from the most sordid to the most splen- did, and with practitioners whose capacity and character have spanned a con- tinuum from the most incompetent and corrupt to the most brilliant and edifying” (p. 74). The observations of Germann et al. (1976) and Vollmer (1971) in regard to professionalism help us to understand that policing does not happen in a vacuum, nor is it independent of society. In fact, it is just the opposite: What has happened in America across history culturally has had a direct impact on the profession of policing. The history of modern policing may best be examined by considering a host of commissions that have demanded change. Kerner Commission, 1967 The 1960s in the United States was a time of social change on all fronts. The generation we now know as baby boomers was on college campuses opposing the Vietnam War other elements included the hippie generation, draft dodgers, and the counterculture. Some were members of groups like the Students for a Democratic Society, which initially promoted civil rights, vot- ing rights, and urban reform, although they were most noted for their oppo- sition to the Vietnam War. Students marched on college campuses, burned their draft cards, and participated in peaceful protests such as sit-ins in some cases, groups such as the volatile Weather Underground participated in acts
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