x | Preface Treaties and agreements are contracts where at least two sides agree to carry out the agreed-upon responsibilities as written in the provisions of the contract. Based on international law, a treaty is an agreement between two sovereigns, or a person or nation with the right to rule itself. This relationship is known as a “trust” by both sides and it is a legally binding contract for each side to carry out the provisions of the treaty. An important point about Indian treaties is that there are at least two cul- tural perspectives to each one. The first one is the Anglo-American perspective with the understanding of treaties as formal written documents that are legally binding. The second point is that of indigenous people who had a different view of treaties since they did not have a written language and the emphasis of treaty making was based on the spoken word in the treaty negotiations or treaty councils. All of this was confirmed by a handshake of trust and sealed with a ceremony by smoking a peace pipe, and the giving of peace medals by American officials to Indian leaders as well as other gifts. This difference of cultures as well as language differences has led to misunderstandings of Indian treaties and the breaking of many of them. Until the 1820s, the treaties benefited the United States more than the Indian na- tions as new states joined the union. As the United States grew in political power, its expanding population moved westward and settled on lands of Indian nations. The Indian nations defended their homelands, leading to wars and removal of more than three dozen tribes from the east to west of the Mississippi River to an area called Indian Territory. In the following decades, western Indian nations were re- moved to concentrated areas due to settlers, miners, and railroads. The nature of U.S.‑Indian relations changed as the United States became a stron- ger nation during the mid-1800s based on military and economic development. In the process, the nature of treaties favored the expanding United States at the ex- pense of more than 300 tribal nations at the time. Why are Indian treaties important would be a useful question for understanding the treaties. The treaties legally protect American Indians and their nations as the U.S. government is the trustee to ensure that the legal rights of American Indians are upheld. Because not all Indians were American citizens until an act by Congress in 1924, Indian treaties profoundly influenced the history of U.S.‑Indian relations. In fact, studying Indian treaties is foundational to understanding the collective his- tory of 567 Indian nations and understanding federal-Indian law of 250 important laws affecting Indians and numerous court cases. To make this volume most useful, it has been divided into two parts. Part I con- sists of three categories of long and short essays. The long essays focus on the na- ture of Indian treaties according to chronology and legal meanings of treaties. The shorter essays are common topics found in Indian treaties and sites of significant treaties. Part II consists of nearly two dozen significant treaties with summary es- says pertaining to each treaty. The names of tribes in the treaties are used and their
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