Introduction There has never been an America without the presence of Muslims. Yet, American Muslims have been increasingly branded as an “un-American” and unassimilable population that poses a societal and security threat to the United States. The faith of American Muslims—Islam—has also come under scrutiny for allegedly condoning violence against non-Muslims, oppressing women, and stifl ing freedom of speech and freedom of religion. Accusations against American Muslims, whether resulting from differences in religion or culture (or a combination of the two), have focused public attention on the state and lives of Muslims as well as the Islamic religion. The attacks of September 11, 2001 (henceforth 9/11), had a signifi cant impact on perceptions of American Muslims and even those in the United States who might be perceived to be Muslim. For some Americans, the utter indifference to the value of human life and the hostility shown toward the United States by Muslims came as a great surprise. Other Americans were confi rmed in their beliefs that the United States is undergoing a civi- lization war between “Western civilization” and the “Muslim world.” This perceived war is rooted in a struggle against terrorism , a term often linked to Muslims, even though the overwhelming majority of violent attacks on American soil have been perpetrated by non-Muslims. The 9/11 attacks also initiated social and institutional responses that resulted in the marginalization of Muslims in the United States. Some of these processes led to hate crimes against Muslims, surveillance of Muslim communities and mosques, racial profi ling, and immigration policies that
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