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xxii Introduction The city of Athens underwent similar changes, evolving from a monarchy to aris- tocracy or republicanism, then tyranny, and then, after foreign intervention, the establishment of democracy. Athenian democracy then underwent more social upheavals, including an oligarchic government and the reestablishment of democ- racy during and after the Peloponnesian War. There are countless other examples in both ancient and modern societies which can help. As All Things Ancient Greece shows, ancient Greece was comprised of moun- tains (hills) and plains (valleys), where independent city-states developed and competed with one another. These city-states, thriving in their various regions, were separated by linguistic and ethnic distinctions that created constant warfare and dissension. These competitions never allowed Greece to unite under one political leader, but they did produce cultural achievements rarely witnessed later or in other regions. In addition to these external competitions, internal struggles within city-states continually took place between groups, providing profound changes. These competitions occurred in nearly every aspect of Greek life: poli- tics, economics, military, and the arts. For example, city-states constantly attempted to outdo each other in building the largest temple to a particular god or goddess in order to attract worshippers and enrich themselves with visitors, goods, and money. The main period under discussion is the Classical Age, or the fifth century, bookended by two great conflicts, the Persian (492–479) and Pelopon- nesian (432–404) wars. The first brought many of the Greek states together to defend their small cities against an overwhelming multicultural world empire. The second saw these same cities now fighting each other in a total internecine war that no one could escape. Cities attempting to remain neutral were often forced to choose: either join one of the sides or be destroyed. The period before the Persian War witnessed the rise of Greek cities, while after the Peloponnesian War, the cit- ies ran headlong into continual squabbling, hence failing to take notice of an even greater threat—the Greek state of Macedon, which would soon break all of the Greek cities, one by one. This period that this work covers ends with the ­ Macedonian victory over the Greek states, which produced a new period called the Hellenistic Age. In many ways, the history and achievements of ancient Greece were told in various tales. All Things Ancient Greece attempts to show that each city-state had its own history and story, connected with some cities while keeping others at bay. Most cities, unlike Athens, do not have coherent histories, and for their stories, we must rely on archaeological and anecdotal materials contained in literary works (often written by biased sources, so their authenticity may be somewhat suspect). While Athens dominates the story of Greece because of its extensive remains, both literary and archaeological, other cities played just as important a role, even if the Athenians did not acknowledge them. If extensive literary remains from other cities had survived, many of the current ideas concerning ancient Greece would undoubtedly be rewritten. Greece should be seen as comprising not only the traditional mainland of the Greek peninsula, but also western Turkey and southern Italy. The physical geogra- phy of Greece determined many of these interactions. In the north, extensive plains and high mountains existed, while in the south, mountains and valleys