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xxiv Introduction case, the Greek city-states believed that their system was better than the despo- tism of the Persians, for even if a king or tyrant ruled a Greek city, its citizens were still protected and free (at least in their eyes) and not viewed as slaves as in Persia. The conflict, then, between the different forms of government was still secondary to the belief that the Greek citizen was free (to participate in govern- ment, at least), a concept that would set Greek government, culture, and writings apart from the despotism of the East. Because of the constant struggle between the cities, there were also conflicts between old and new, often best witnessed via the development of religion. The original religious framework in Greece revolved around nature and superstition. Although superstition, such as omens, constantly existed, there was also a general belief that the gods were humanlike (anthropomorphic), with the same foibles and attributes of humans, but greater powers. These gods often capriciously interfered in the affairs of people and cities, taking sides as they saw fit and constantly caus- ing mischief. The Olympian gods, developed during the late Bronze Age, were in part a fusion of the native indigenous and Dorian deities. Often, for example, these forces manifested themselves through the great shrines and oracles at Delphi and Dodona. The Greeks, like other ancient societies, held that their religion existed for the benefit and salvation of society, not the individual. Mystery Religions arose, and through initiations, they allowed individuals to achieve personal salva- tion, manifested in the life and death involved in nature. Greek culture was a conglomeration of Mediterranean influences through time and geography. Architecture received influences from the Near East, through the Minoan Cnossus, and then was translated on the mainland through the ­Mycenaean conquerors. These forces then merged with influences of the new immigrants, the Dorians, to produce new architectural forms that ultimately were seen in the tem- ples of the Athenian Acropolis, such as the Parthenon in the Classical Age. This phenomenon paralleled the cultural growth: philosophy, music, literature, and art. Philosophy and its ancillary subjects, such as astronomy (and astrology), math, and geography, allowed the Greeks to develop new ideas. Music and its ancillary form, dance, developed from religion and nature. These arts then became the basis of literature, especially drama, with its divisions of tragedy and comedy. Finally, fine arts, paintings, sculpture, and pottery developed and evolved from stylistic forms to lifelike creations, producing some of the great masterpieces that impacted not only the Greek world, but future generations. All Things Ancient Greece explores the Mediterranean world and how ancient Greece continually influences the modern world. As Greek society developed, especially during the Classical Age, the boundaries of intellectual thought expanded and continuously moved beyond most ideas of the Near East. Greek culture and society dominated the Mediterranean from the fifth century onward. Although not all topics in this area can be explored, even in a large encyclopedia like this, many concepts are examined to help explain the events that influenced the world.