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Introduction xiii classified as homosexuals even if the individuals in question would not perceive them- selves as members of this group? 6 In yet another example, is being “Jewish” a religious identity or an ethnic one? Is it both? For example, are European Jews who convert to another faith or are raised in another faith still “Jews”? Such are the questions facing Jewish historians, particularly in periods of Spanish history, in which many Jews con- verted (or ostensibly converted) to Christianity to avoid persecution. 7 Another problem in studying blacks in European history and culture is that data recording race are scarce during earlier periods of history, making attempts to trace their presence difficult. Furthermore, blacks who became successful in earlier periods did so by following conventional paths and were often of biracial descent thus the fact that they were “black” is obscured. The limited studies and records on blacks in earlier European history seem to support the notion that blacks in Europe were gener- ally integrated into European society. 8 The sexual exploitation of black women in the colonies led to a number of biracial individuals in all levels of society. Some of them received recognition from their white fathers and returned to Europe. Two of the most famous examples are the Chevalier de Saint-Georges and Thomas-Alexandre Dumas, both biracial French aristocrats born in the French colonies who became military com- manders in France during the French Revolution. European (and Western) history has frequently been perceived as the accomplish- ments of a white majority. Even in the stricter European sense, blacks, who have contributed to European political, social, and cultural development have often been ig- nored in standard European and Western civilization textbooks and there are relatively few studies. Only recently have works by such black intellectuals as Jacobus Capitein, a former slave who became a European professor in the eighteenth century, aroused scholarly interest. A recent collection of essays has studied the influence of European blacks during the Renaissance, including studies on the great Spanish humanist Juan Latino and Alessandro de Medici, whose mother was a black slave. 9 The invisibility of blacks in European history and culture suggests the possibility of a conscious or uncon- scious attempt to ignore or minimize the influence of a minority group. In highlighting the role of blacks (in a broad sense) in European history and culture, therefore, scholars have been attempting to counter the notions about blacks that have led to their con- scious or unconscious marginalization in the historical memory and the elements of racism that have run current in European thought. Like many minority groups in European history, such as Jews or Roma, blacks were believed to have negative influences on society. In earlier European thought, it was believed that blacks had dark skin because they were “cursed” by God. Two different variations of this curse existed (and were often conflated) that derived from the Hebrew Scriptures (or Old Testament). One stemmed from the curse of Cain and the other the curse of Ham. Europeans used this interpretation to find a biblical justification to segregate and regulate blacks in European society. Thus racism, bans on interracial marriage, and the enslavement of Africans were all justified. 10 Belief in the curse of Ham or the mark of Cain later gave way to “Enlightenment” and “scientific” studies that justified divisions between races. 11 Despite the times that blacks were able to integrate into European society, they were periodically the victims of efforts to regulate their presence in European society