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xxiv | Chronology Supreme Court: “A Statute, which, under pretence of regulating the manner of bear- ing arms, amounts to a destruction of the right, or which requires arms to be so borne as to render them wholly useless for the purpose of defence, would be clearly uncon- stitutional. But a law which is intended merely to promote personal security, and to put down lawless aggression and violence, and to that end inhibits the wearing of cer- tain weapons in such a manner as is calcu- lated to exert an unhappy influence upon the moral feelings of the wearer, by making him less regardful of the personal security of others, does not come in collision with the constitution” (State v. Reid, 1 Ala. 612 [1840]). In other words, Alabama could ban concealed carry of handguns, as open carry is allowed. A few decisions from the South, after white supremacists regain control of state governments following Reconstruc- tion, are more restrictive—upholding laws making any carrying difficult and inconve- nient (e.g., mandating that the handgun be actually carried in the hand). 1865–1866 In the post–Civil War South, Black Codes are enacted in Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Car- olina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Texas. These statutes deprive African Americans of many basic rights, including the right to own and carry firearms. For example, a Mississippi law dictates that “no freedman, free Negro, or mulatto not in the military service of the United States gov- ernment, and not licensed so to do by the board of police of his or her county, shall keep or carry firearms of any kind, or ammunition, dirk, or Bowie knife” (as quoted in Cramer 1994, 72). Such laws con- tribute to keeping African Americans servile. 1871 The National Rifle Association (NRA) is founded in 1871. In its early years, it is a small shooting association sponsoring rifle matches and sharpshooter classes. Presti- gious retired army officers, such as former President Ulysses Grant and 1880 Demo- cratic presidential nominee Winfield Scott Hancock, serve as early presidents, sup- porting the NRA’s purpose of helping to keep the general population militia ready. As part of this task, the NRA is commis- sioned to train members of the New York National Guard to shoot well, as well as to create a marksmanship training model to be adopted by other state militias. However, its state funding is cut off in 1879, and by 1892, the organization falls into disarray. Revived a few years later, the NRA receives a substantial boost in 1903, when Congress creates the National Board for the Promotion of Rifle Practice (NBPRP) to promote civilian rifle practice (another attempt by the military to ensure that civil- ians are militia ready). An appendage of the War Department, the civilian-run NBPRP includes all eight NRA trustees on its exec- utive board, pursuant to congressional com- mand. This is a critical turning point for the organization, as these trustees work with Congress to achieve passage in 1905 of Public Law 149, authorizing the sale of sur- plus military weapons, at cost, to rifle clubs meeting NBPRP standards. As imple- mented, one of these standards is that the club must be affiliated with the NRA, and Congress formally makes this a require- ment in 1924. The NRA is also chosen to run the National Matches, the rifle champi- onships created by the 1903 law. In 1910, Congress authorizes the giving away of surplus weaponry to NRA-spon- sored clubs, and in 1912, Congress begins funding NRA rifle championships. The